A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PROFILING DIFFICULTIES IN READING AND SPELLING CLOSED CVC SYLLABLES AMONG PUPILS IN THE PEMULIHAN KHAS PROGRAMME
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35631/IJEPC.1165008Keywords:
Conceptual Framework, Reading and Spelling Difficulties, Phonological Processing, Pemulihan Khas Programme, Closed CVC SyllablesAbstract
Proficiency in reading and spelling closed consonant–vowel–consonant (CVC) syllables is an important aspect of Malay literacy development, particularly for pupils in the Pemulihan Khas programme who still require support with Skills 8–15. This article aims to develop a conceptual framework to describe these pupils’ profiles of difficulty in reading and spelling CVC syllables. Although previous studies have provided a basis for understanding phonological processing, relationships between written forms and sounds, CVC structure, and types of reading and spelling errors, the evidence reviewed remains fragmented across research foci and domains and has not been integrated into an account of CVC reading and spelling difficulty profiles. The framework is developed through a synthesis of linguistic concepts, theoretical foundations and evidence from previous studies. Psycholinguistic Grain Size Theory (PGST) informs the understanding of phonological unit processing, while Orthographic Mapping (OM) provides a basis for understanding relationships between written forms and sounds. The evidence is compared in terms of processing direction, the position of elements within the C–V–C structure, and reported error types. The synthesis yields seven components within three analytical groupings: three in the reading domain, comprising letter–sound correspondences, C–V–C blending and coda sound retention during reading; two in the spelling domain, comprising sound–letter correspondences and written CVC spelling; and two in the cross-domain grouping, comprising correspondence between reading and spelling performance and recurring error patterns. The article concludes that CVC reading and spelling difficulty profiles need to be described through an integrated account of accuracy, the processes involved, the position of affected elements, and the relationship between the two skills. The framework offers a conceptual basis for further empirical investigation within the Malay language Pemulihan Khas programme.
Downloads
References
Ahmad, Z. (2004). Alignment and the syllable coda condition in Malay: An optimality account. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 4(2), 1–32. http://journalarticle.ukm.my/738/
Ali, S., & Nor Shaid, N. A. (2025). Fenomena masalah membaca dalam kalangan murid Tahun 1 di sekolah kebangsaan. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 10(5), Article e003347. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v10i5.3347
Avdyli, R., & Cuetos, F. (2012). Reading difficulties in Albanian. Annals of Dyslexia, 62(3), 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-012-0069-1
de Bree, E., Lammertink, I., van Witteloostuijn, M., & Rispens, J. (2022). Word-level spelling of children with dyslexia and developmental language disorder. Stem-, Spraak- en Taalpathologie, 27, 24–52. https://doi.org/10.21827/32.8310/2022-SG-24
Di Blasi, F. D., Vizzi, F., Stimoli, M. A., Buono, S., Iaia, M., Zoccolotti, P., & Angelelli, P. (2023). Spelling deficits in children with intellectual disabilities: Evidence from a regular orthography. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1065525. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1065525
Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356
Foorman, B. R., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., Furgeson, J., Hayes, L., Henke, J., Justice, L., Keating, B., Lewis, W., Sattar, S., Streke, A., Wagner, R., & Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/21
Furnes, B., Elwér, Å., Samuelsson, S., Treiman, R., & Olson, R. K. (2024). The stability and developmental interplay of word reading and spelling: A cross-linguistic longitudinal study from kindergarten to grade 4. Reading and Writing, 37(9), 2411–2428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-023-10465-9
Husni, H., & Jamaludin, Z. (2010). Improving ASR performance using context-dependent phoneme models. Journal of Systems and Information Technology, 12(1), 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1108/13287261011032652
Jamil, N. H., & Rusli, N. F. M. (2024). Masalah bacaan Bahasa Melayu murid disleksia: Pengelasan berdasarkan teori sindrom disleksia Levinson. International Journal of Education, Psychology and Counselling, 9(56), 530–545. https://doi.org/10.35631/IJEPC.956033
Jaakkola, E. (2020). Designing conceptual articles: Four approaches. AMS Review, 10(1–2), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-020-00161-0
Jeon, Y. J., Kang, M., & Yeon, S. J. (2023). Phonological change error patterns according to type of tasks (reading, writing) of students with dyslexia. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 28(1), 52–70. https://doi.org/10.12963/csd.23943
Jozipović, M., Đurenec, M., Lenček, M., & Zrinjski, M. (2025). Reading aloud in a language with transparent orthography: Characteristics of adults with dyslexia. Hrvatska Revija za Rehabilitacijska Istraživanja, 61(2), 116–140. https://doi.org/10.31299/hrri.61.2.7
Kasim, M. R. (2023). CVC Malay closed syllabic spelling techniques regressively (back to front): An analysis of Malay syllabication theory: Teknik pengejaan suku kata tertutup Bahasa Melayu KVK secara regresif (dari belakang ke depan): Satu analisis teori pengsukukataan Bahasa Melayu. Jurnal Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak Kebangsaan, 12(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.37134/jpak.vol12.2.1.2023
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2017). Dasar Pendidikan Kebangsaan (Edisi keempat). Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2019). Buku panduan pengajaran dan pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu Program Pemulihan Khas. Bahagian Pendidikan Khas.
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2024, December 19). Perhimpunan bulanan Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (KPM) bulan Disember 2024. https://www.moe.gov.my/perhimpunan-bulanan-kementerian-pendidikan-malaysia
Kim, Y.-S. G. (2026). What explains the relations between reading comprehension and written composition? Findings from a longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 30(2), 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2025.2582620
Lee, L. W. (2008). Development and validation of a reading-related assessment battery in Malay for the purpose of dyslexia assessment. Annals of Dyslexia, 58(1), 37–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-007-0011-0
Lee, L. W., & Wheldall, K. (2011). Acquisition of Malay word recognition skills: Lessons from low-progress early readers. Dyslexia, 17(1), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.421
Lee, L. W., Low, H. M., & Lee, S. S. (2019). Exploring phoneme-grapheme connections in Malay word building. Writing Systems Research, 11(1), 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/17586801.2019.1662533
Lee, J. A. C., Lee, S., Yusoff, N. F. M., Ong, P. H., Nordin, Z. S., & Winskel, H. (2020). An early reading assessment battery for multilingual learners in Malaysia. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 1700. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01700
Lee, A. S. S., & Lee, L. W. (2021). Effect of a Malay language phonics intervention on the decoding skills and self-regulated learning strategies of older primary school students with dyslexia. Kajian Malaysia, 39(1), 77–98. https://doi.org/10.21315/km2021.39.1.4
Lee, R., & Ha, S. (2025). Word decoding skills in early elementary children with and without speech sound disorders and developmental dyslexia. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 30(2), 292–301. https://doi.org/10.12963/csd.250123
Loo, F. L., & Mariani, M. N. (2020). Investigating cross-language relations in the phonological awareness of children’s early reading. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 28(1), 73–88.
Mohd Rusli, N. F., Abdul Jobar, N., & Md Adam, N. F. (2022). Kesalahan ejaan murid berdasarkan bunyi konsonan dalam ujaran guru: Analisis fonologi generatif. Issues in Language Studies, 11(2), 37–60. https://doi.org/10.33736/ils.4375.2022
O’Brien, B. A., Habib Mohamed, M. B., Arshad, N. A., & Lim, N. C. (2020). The impact of different writing systems on children’s spelling error profiles: Alphabetic, akshara, and hanzi cases. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 870. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00870
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). Core foundations for 2030: OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 conceptual learning framework. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/about/projects/edu/education-2040/concept-notes/Core_Foundations_for_2030_concept_note.pdf
Pejabat Pendidikan Daerah Kota Belud, Unit Pemulihan Khas. (2025, Mac). Rumusan data Pemulihan Khas Bahasa Melayu daerah Kota Belud [Data pentadbiran dalaman tidak diterbitkan].
Rahbari, N. (2019). Error patterns in word reading and spelling in Persian: Is spelling more difficult than reading? Reading and Writing, 32(3), 585–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9884-z
Rickard Liow, S. J., & Lee, L. C. (2004). Metalinguistic awareness and semi-syllabic scripts: Children’s spelling errors in Malay. Reading and Writing, 17(1–2), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:READ.0000013833.79570.de
Samsudin, N. H., Abdul Wahid, P. R., Ja’afar, S., & Yaakub, M. T. (2017). Tahap keupayaan kognitif bacaan dalam pembelajaran bahasa Melayu kanak-kanak pemulihan khas. Sains Insani, 2(2), 81–87. https://doi.org/10.33102/sainsinsani.vol2no2.40
Seymour, P. H. K., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94(2), 143–174. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712603321661859
Subramaniam, V., Abd Wahid, P. R., Abd Rahim, N., & Kunasegran, K. (2022). Kesalahan bacaan dalam Bahasa Melayu oleh murid disleksia berdasarkan perspektif Teori Levinson. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 30(2), 743–759. https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.30.2.17
Teoh, B. S. (1989). Syarat koda suku kata dalam bahasa Melayu. Jurnal Dewan Bahasa, 33(11), 843–850.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2016). Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245656
Wahap, N. A. (2021). Keberkesanan kaedah gabung bunyi kata (KGBK) terhadap pencapaian kemahiran membaca Bahasa Melayu dalam kalangan murid Pemulihan Khas [Master’s thesis, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris]. UPSI Digital Repository. https://ir.upsi.edu.my/detailsg.php?det=6918
Winskel, H. (2020). Learning to read in multilingual Malaysia: A focus on Bahasa Melayu, Tamil and Chinese. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 20(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2020-2001-01
Yap, M. J., Rickard Liow, S. J., Jalil, S. B., & Faizal, S. S. B. (2010). The Malay Lexicon Project: A database of lexical statistics for 9,592 words. Behavior Research Methods, 42(4), 992–1003. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.4.992
Yuan, W. S. (2023). Meningkatkan penguasaan murid pemulihan dalam kemahiran mengeja, membaca dan menulis perkataan KVKVK menggunakan 4R in Heaven. In The 3rd International Conference on Education and Language for Students and Adult Learners (ELSA) e-Proceeding (pp. 67–86). Unit Penerbitan UiTM Perak. https://ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/110117
Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3
